Sioux Indians Essay -- American History

Sioux Indians We're going to tell you about a tribe of Indians known as the Sioux Indians. The Sioux Indians lived on the great plains. The Sioux's tribe is partially and fully located in 7 states. The states are known as Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Iowa, Minnesota, and Wisconsin. Their natural resources include deer, beans, wild rice, and buffalo. The Sioux nation was divided into 7 groups. They were known as the 7 council fires. Each council fire had its own leaders and own group of families that always camped together. The largest Council Fire lived on the western plains. It was so big it was divided into 7 groups. It was called the Teton Sioux. They spoke the Lakota dialect of the Sioux language. Two councils lived on the middle plains, they were called Yankton Sioux. The language they spoke was the Nakota dialect of the Sioux language. The other Council Fires lived on the plains in the east. The name that they called themselves was Santee Sioux. The dialect that they spoke was the Dakota dialect of the Sioux language. The councils lived far away from each other, but they could understand each other's dialect. The families in each council fire met once a year , during the summer. When they met they shared news and traded things they had gotten from other tribes. They gave gifts away at special feats that were c alled giveaways. They also played ball games and raced horses. It was time to give thanks for the past year , and ask for help in the new year. They did this by taking part in a Sun Dance. The Sioux never camped in one place for very long. They were nomads and moved their camps to follow the buffalo and to find fresh grass for their ponies. Because of this they lived i... ... The plate was sometimes made out of buffalo horn hair pipes. The Sioux were also excellent riders. They trained their horses well and fast. The horses allowed the men to move quickly in battle and out of danger. As time passed, the Sioux traded with Europeans for guns. They became excellent marksmen. Sitting Bull was a well respected medicine man, and later became a chief. He led the Sioux through many battles. One of the most famous was called the Battle of the Little Bighorn. Sitting Bull believed the Ghost Dance would unite the Sioux. He encouraged his people to perform the dance. The U.S. government banned the dance and Sitting Bull was arrested and then killed. The Sioux Indians had very interesting traits and still live on reservations in North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, and Minnesota. The reservations have about 106,500 members.

The Role and Proceedings in a magistrate’s court

The court system in the United Kingdom has continuously been changing over the year’s. In the recent past; the pace of change in court reforms has been fast, this has in turn led to some important changes within the English court system. For example, before the year 1979, the Lord Chancellors department (LCD) was responsible for running all the courts except the magistrate’s courts.It is during this year(1979) when the administration of magistrate courts was transferred to a state agency referred to as the court service which was earlier responsible for administering the functions of the supreme court of England and Wales, this also consisted of the court of appeal, the high court ,the crown court, county courts and several tribunals. Magistrates Courts were under the jurisdiction of local committees that were constituted under the authority of the home office until the beginning of the year 1991. Since this year, the Lord Chancellors Department took over the running of magistrates courts.The enactment of the courts act of 2003 led to the creation of her majesty’s courts service (HMCS) as the executive agency responsible for administering the English court system. The crown court on the other part is one of the courts that constitute the senior courts of Wales and England. The administration of the crown court is overseen by the HMCS and the court mainly handles appeals for decisions referred from the magistrate courts, convicting persons who have sentenced in the Crown courts, carrying out jury trials and finally, sentencing those who have been convicted in magistrate courts (Gray, 2004, p.16). This paper explores what happens in magistrate and crown courts and offers a comparative analysis of the two courts and seeks to create understanding of the role played by them in the administration of justice. The Role and Proceedings in a magistrate’s court The first visit by any one into a magistrate’s court will be characterized by so many questions. As Gibson and Watkins, 2009, p. 10, note, a first visitor will want to know why things are done in the manner they are done. Many of the criminal proceedings begin in the magistrates courts.These proceedings range from offences relating to parking, sexual offenses, crimes committed by youthful people or juveniles and cut across to cases involving murder. Besides these hearings, Welsh, Greenwood and Banks, 2007, p. 97, add that magistrate courts also carry put proceedings relating to family issues like neglect of young children and disputes between the husband and the wife. Most of the cases that are brought in a magistrates court are concluded through acquittals, conviction and sentencing by the magistrates.Magistrates do not work for a regular pay but in the course of their duties, they are given reasonable allowances to meet their travel, subsistence and loss of earning. According to Hunter and Roberts, 1997, p. 35, any one aged above eighteen years and has bee n charged with committing an offence is required to attend a hearing in the court. As mentioned earlier, a large percentage of the criminal cases in England and Wales are handled by the magistrate courts.The cases heard in a magistrate’s court are divided into summary offences (lesser offences), Either-way offences (cases that can also be heard in a crown court before a judge) and Indictable-only offences (serious offences such as murder, manslaughter, and rape). The hearing for the case takes place in the court, members of the public have a gallery from which they sit and follow the proceedings. In cases where the accused persons are young offenders or juveniles, special arrangements are made before the trial begins (Gibson, & Watkins, 2009, p.83). During my visit to the magistrates’ court, I noted that the nature of offences that were being heard were common offences which included affray (in which the defendant was a young man), a case involving assault occasioning actual bodily harm (ABH), this case involved two young college mates of which the defendant was a female student. The last case involved theft, a young man was accused of having shop lifted a pair of sports boots from a shopping mall.The offences are defined in the following provisions; section 47, of the offences against the person act of 1861, Section 1 of the theft Act 1968, and Section 3 of public order act 1986. (Adopted from, Criminal Litigation & Procedure by Tyrer& Lawton, 2000, p. 119). Of the three cases, none of the defendants had a defense lawyer. In the case involving assault, the defendant appeared composed and decently dressed. When the charge was read, the defendant showed that she clearly understood the accusation against her.The defendant pleaded guilty to the charge explaining to the magistrate that the assault was due to excess drinking that made her to be easily provoked by the plaintiff. In delivering the sentence, the magistrate read out the charges clearly to the defendant and quoted extensively on the provision section 47, of the offences against the person act of 1861. the magistrate concluded his sentencing by requiring that the she pays a fine of three thousand pounds and also ordered that the defendant restrains from excessive indulgence in alcohol consumption.The defendant in the second case was young man and the witness was a shop attendant who worked in the shopping mall from where the defendant was accused of having committed the crime. The stolen shoes and tapes recordings from a closed circuit television (CCTV) camera inside the shop were produced and used as exhibits in the case. The prosecutor was able to prove that the defendant had committed the offence because of his alibi. Similarly, the defendant pleaded guilty and asked for forgiveness vowing never to commit the offence again.In settling this matter, the magistrate cited the nature of the offence and considering that the young man was a first offender, the magistrate ruled that the young man be freed upon paying reparations equivalent to the price of the stolen boots. The case involving affray involved a young man who was accused of threatening a neighbor with violence in a dispute arising from a bet that was not honored relating to the outcomes of a premier league encounter between two teams playing in the champions’ league.In delivering the sentence, the magistrate ordered that the young man be remanded and the case be heard on a later date since the defendant was not apologetic to the plaintiff and was openly violent even at the hearing of the case. I was particularly impressed with the way the prosecution was able to proof that the young man had stolen the boots from the shopping mall and in the case involving affray. My surprise comes from the conduct of the first two defendants who pleaded guilty to the charges, consequently, leaving the prosecution with no task to proof that the defendants had actually committed the offences.The Ro le and Proceedings in a crown court. The national audit office, 2007, p. 4 reports that crown courts handle the most serious cases for example murder and rape. The administration of these courts is a responsibility of the HM court services and the courts often handle appeal proceedings that are brought against convictions or sentences that were initially dealt with at the magistrate’s court. When a case is heard in the crown court, the judge has the authority alter or even reverse earlier decisions made regarding the case.During the trial, the judge and a jury that consists of around twelve people hear the case. Members of the jury who hear the case are required to come up with their own verdict regarding the matter in the proceedings. The defendant will be present together with defense and prosecution lawyers, together with members of the public who follow the court proceedings from the public gallery. At times, members of the press may be present in the court to follow on t he proceedings.The length of time a case may last in the crown will mostly depend on the nature of the case and the complexity involved in the gathering and presenting the evidences. So, the trials could last t for a day or proceeds for several weeks and even months. Cownie, Bradney and Burton, p. 317, explain that cases in a crown court are heard before a judge and jury; they however note that a small number of all the cases that appear in crown are acquitted or convicted through jury trials. An observation by Cownie, Bradney and Burton (p.317) is that most of the defendants in the crown court end up pleading guilty and the judge plays a critical role in the acquittal of those defendants who enter a not guilty plea. According to Gray, 2004, p. 16, offenses tried in a crown court can be categorized into four classes namely, Class 1(murder, treason and other related crimes ), class 2(Manslaughter and murder, rape cases), class 3(indictable and various either-way offenses) and finally class 4(robbery, assault and offenses causing serious bodily harm).During my visit to the crown court, I heard a case that involved a middle aged man, thirty five years of age who was charged with an indictable-only offense. The man was charged with grievous bodily harm which is contradiction to the provisions of section 18, Offence Against the person act 1861. Alonsdide this, the man was also facing an acquisition of affray which is a contradiction to section 3 public order act of 1986. These two incidents were tied to a fight that took place in the city centre between supporters of opposing teams.The defendant was represented by a lawyer and this is one of the cases in which the prosecution was put to task to proof that the defendant had committed the offence. The case also involved the jury which ruled that owing to the extensive damages to property and the disruptions of activities at the city centre occasioned by the brawl, the defendant had a case to answer despite not pleadi ng guilty. This case had received great coverage from the press and public interest in the case was also high.The case was not concluded as I had anticipated and the case was deferred to later date owing to the need for the prosecution to finalize investigations on other co-defendants who were still in police custody. Comparative analysis Looking at proceedings that are handled in the two courts, both courts carry out trials that fall in either one of the following offenses; summary offenses which are often petty offenses mainly tried in the magistrates courts. In the magistrates’ court, an important distinguishing note between the magistrates’ court and the Crown is that the proceedings do not involve a judge or a jury (Cullingworth, 2001 .p. 205). The magistrates, unlike the judge who sits in the Crown court, the maximum sentence that the magistrate can give to a defendant who is proven as guilty is six months, this is different from the sentences in the Crown court where the judge together with the jury can give a sentence that is more than six months. On the same note, the maximum amount of money that can be paid as fines in a magistrate courts differs from that which the judge can quote at the conclusion of a proceeding in a Crown court.This maximum amount is three thousand pounds. In regard to the second category of offenses, which are triable either-way offenses, proceedings can be held in any of the two courts. Most often, a case is referred to the Crown court by the magistrates court if the defendant has been charged with the same offence more than twice or when there are multiple charges in which the magistrate feels there is need to refer the case to the crown court (Hannibal & Mountford, 2007, p. 39).Such cases include serious offenses like assault and rape. Pertaining to the last category of offenses, which are indictable offenses, proceedings can only be conducted in the crown court. The nature of offenses is regarded as serious and the trials may take considerable time because the cases involved are complex. Such complex cases include trials for armed robbery, major fraud cases, rape, and grievous bodily harm . These offenses have harsh sentences that may include the defendant being sentenced to life in prison.Both courts have a shared responsibility of administering justice, though this is done at different administrative levels with majority of the criminal cases being tired in the magistrates’ court with some being referred to the crown court for further consideration. Conclusion The magistrate and crown courts were created to serve the need of administering justice as part of the English court systems. Many of the criminal cases are heard in magistrates’ courts which do not have a judge or jury during the proceedings.The nature of sentences that a magistrate can order are generally not severe because the maximums sentence period is six months and the fine is set at a maximum of three thousan d pounds. On the other hand the proceedings in Crown court often involve a jury, a judge, defense lawyers and the director of prosecution. Since the Crown court handles cases that are complex in nature, the English court system has made the process of justice administration easier as magistrates’ courts can be effectively used to divert sizeable number of cases that could end up being pushed in Crown courts.Keeping in mind the crucial role played other courts like the county and youth courts and the presence of a state agency solely responsible for administration of the courts, which is her majesty’s courts service, (HMCS), the English justice administration systems are quite efficient. Reference list Cownie, F, Bradney, A & Burton, M, 2007, English legal system in context, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Cullingworth, N, 2001, Edexcel BTEC first public services textbook, Nelson Thornes,Cheltenham. Gibson, B &Watkins, M, 2009, The Magistrates ‘Court: an Introduc tion, 5th Ed, Waterside Press, Sherfield.Gray, D, 2004, BTEC National in Public Services, Heinemann. Hannibal,M& Mountford,L,2007,LPC Handbook on Criminal Litigation 2007-2008, Oxford University Press, Oxford Hunter, J& Roberts, C. A, 1997, Studies in crime: an introduction to forensic archaeology, Routledge, London. National Audit Office, 2009, Administration of the Crown Court, The Stationery Office, London. Tyrer, J& Lawton, D, 2000, Criminal Litigation & Procedure, Routledge, London Welsh, T, Greenwood, W& Banks, D, 2007, McNae's essential law for journalists, Ed19, Oxford University Press, Oxford. .

History of Indian Constitution Essay

THE CABINET MISSION PLAN In 1946, at the initiative of British Prime Minister Clement Attlee, a cabinet mission to India was formulated to discuss and finalize plans for the transfer of power from the British Raj to Indian leadership and providing India with independence under Dominion status in the Commonwealth of Nations. The Mission discussed the framework of the constitution and laid down in some detail the procedure to be followed by the constitution drafting body. Elections for the 296 seats assigned to the British Indian provinces were completed by August 1946. With the independence of India on August 15, 1947, the Constituent Assembly became a fully sovereign body and began work on 9 December 1947. THE CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY The Constitution was drafted by the Constituent Assembly, which was elected by the elected members of the provincial assemblies. Jawaharlal Nehru, C. Rajagopalachari, Rajendra Prasad, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad and Shyama Prasad Mukherjee were some important figures in the Assembly. There were more than 30 members of the scheduled classes. Frank Anthony represented the Anglo-Indian community, and the Parsis were represented by H. P. Modi and R. K. Sidhwa. The Chairman of the Minorities Committee was Harendra Coomar Mookerjee, a distinguished Christian who represented all Christians other than Anglo-Indians. Ari Bahadur Gururng represented the Gorkha Community. Prominent jurists like Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer, B. R. Ambedkar, Benegal Narasingh Rao and K. M. Munshi Ganesh Mavlankar were also members of the Assembly. Sarojini Naidu, Hansa Mehta, Durgabai Deshmukh and Rajkumari Amrit Kaur were important women members. The first president of the Constituent Assembly was Sachidanand Sinha later, Rajendra Prasad was elected president of the Constituent Assembly. The members of the Constituent Assembly met for the first time in the year 1946 on December 9. DRAFTING In the August 14, 1947 meeting of the Assembly, a proposal for forming various committees was presented. Such committees include Committee on Fundamental Rights, the Union Powers Committee and Union Constitution  Committee. On August 29, 1947, the Drafting Committee was appointed, with Dr. Ambedkar as the Chairman along with six other members. A Draft Constitution was prepared by the committee and submitted to the Assembly on November 4, 1947. The Assembly met, in sessions open to public, for 166 days, spread over a period of 2 years, 11 months and 18 days before adopting the Constitution. After many deliberations and some modifications, the 308 members of the Assembly signed two hand-written copies of the document (one each in Hindi and English) on the January 24, 1950. Two days later, the Constitution of India became the law of all the Indian lands. STRUCTURE OF THE UNION GOVERNMENT The basic form of the Union Government envisaged in the Constitution was introduced by Dr. Ambedkar as follows, â€Å"A democractic executive must satisfy two conditions: 1. It must be a stable executive, and 2. It must be a responsible executive. Unfortunately, it has not been possible so far to devise a system which can ensure both conditions in equal degree. †¦.. The daily assessment of responsibility, which is not available in the American system is, it is felt, far more effective than the periodic assessment and far more necessary in a country like India. The Draft Constitution in recommending the parliamentary system of Executive has preferred more responsibility to stability.† India, thus adopted a Parliamentary form of government, with the President as the nominal head of the Executive and the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers wielding actual power.

The eNotes Blog Nora Ephron, PioneerWoman

Nora Ephron, PioneerWoman Above all, be the heroine of your life, not the victim. Nora Ephron, one of Americas most beloved humorists, died today at the age of 71. Unconfined to the mere role of writer, Ephron transcended all genres. Journalist, screenwriter, novelist, playwright, essayist, blogger, she wore many hats, progressing from a young satirist in 1960s New York to one of the most powerful people in Hollywood. Many will remember her for the romantic comedies that warmed our hearts (Sleepless in Seattle, When Harry Met Sally, Youve Got Mail) but in her passing fellow female journalists remind us of the contributions Ephron made to the advancement of women. In a moving tribute to the writer in The Huffington Post, Lisa Belkin writes, Most of all, she opened doors. By putting the female experience on the screen and on the page, she made it visible, and worthy, and she elevated it to the level of art. She took womens topics romance, relationships, food, motherhood, clothes, hair, friendship, aging, looking young and declared that they were not only worthy of conversation, but they could draw at the box office, which is the only language Hollywood understands. Its hard to imagine where the funny women of the page and screen would be today without Nora Ephron to pave their way. Could Lena Dunham or Tina Fey be so side-splittingly hilarious without Ephron as a predecessor? She wrote unabashedly about the womens realm, reveling in the womans view of sex and romance, allowing all of us to be not only funny, but honest and genuine too. She gave women a voice, and a witty one at that. Ephrons last two collections of essays, 2006s I Feel Bad About My Neck and 2010s I Remember Nothing, continued on in the same candid style as her earlier works, leaving nothing about her musings on aging to the imagination:  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Today there are parts of Manhattan and Los Angeles where there are no gray-haired women at all†¦ The amount of maintenance involving hair is genuinely overwhelming. Sometimes I think that not having to worry about your hair anymore is the secret upside of death.† Clues like this insinuated the end might be near, but for the rest of us it still came far too soon. Ephron once wrote, I always read the last page of a book first so that if I die before I finish Ill know how it turned out. We may have reached Noras last page, but I suspect and hope that young women everywhere will read her story for years to come.

An analysis and comparison of James Bond Film Essay Example

An analysis and comparison of James Bond Film Essay Example An analysis and comparison of James Bond Film Paper An analysis and comparison of James Bond Film Paper The names Bond James Bond In 1952 writer Ian Fleming created one of the best fictional heroes of all time, James bond. James bond films have become a major hit throughout the years. The first James bond Movie was made in 1962. Since then over 21 James bond films have been made. There has been 6 actors, all were successful in playing the James bond roll; Sean cannery, George Lazenby, Roger Moore, Timothy Dalton, Pierce Brosnan and Daniel Craig (current James bond).There are many different reasons why the audience go for James bond films. It is appealing to women because of the good-looking, sophisticated and intelligent men. They are mainly drawn to James bond as he has all of these features and he is British. Women might also want to watch the films to keep a look out for fashionable clothes which are represented in the female actors. Males on the other hand are attracted by many more ideas. The films are constantly full of high energy and excitement which the props help to build up such as the unusual gadgets, guns, explosions and extreme stunts. Some men might watch James Bond films because of envy built by the main character Bond himself. The fact that he owns flashy cars such as the Aston Martin and other exhilarating vehicles could cause some male or even female audiences become quite jealous in addition James bond seems to always be surrounded by beautiful women. James bond films have gorgeous women, most in which are presented either half naked or through their sexual actions which is another reason why men are enticed to Bond films. It seems that every James bond film follows the same formula. The typical James Bond storyline would be when a problem occurs, bond is usually ordered to solve it. Bond hunts down the villain, on the way of his mission he either bumps into beautiful women or women that are related to the problem. He gets involved with the women sexually, sometimes in order get information from them. Some of the ladies end up dead and luckily for one, bond falls in love with them and so she lives. In the end James bond finds out the villains evil intensions and discovers a way to halt his/her tactics. The villain dies; Bond once again saves the world from destruction. There are many different settings for James bond movies. Some of the typical settings would be usually placed in exotic fancy locations such as the Bahamas or Spain, this is normally where he chases the villains and ladies. The conventional characters that are used in James bond films are usually very attractive and influential to the audience. There is always a classically stereotypical female villain who thinks she can seduce James Bond, she is the very sexually promiscuous woman in which bond can easily get information from by using sexual advances. Sometimes they are influenced by James bond to turn from bad to good but they end up dead either way. However the good girls are the ones that Bond truly falls in love with, she is not as sexual as the female villains but is a very beautiful lady and Bond protects her till the very end. The villains are usually the ones that want to take over the world or blown up a city/place. James Bond is a stereotypical heroic character. He is a ladies man/a man on a mission. Bond completes his given task and later praised by bonds high class boss. There is a regular theme tune that is often played when James Bond makes his entrance in different places or when he is ready for action.  James bond posters help the audience to uncover the possible story before watching the film. This essay will be closely analysing, comparing and contrasting two well known James bond posters. Firstly I will be analysing the James bond Thunderball poster. The mis-en-scene of this poster is initially the images of James bond. We can see James Bond in a variety of different activities which connotes the film is full of action furthermore gives us the impression James bond is a strong, fit and healthy man. James bond is shown in a significant way to suggest he is the main character. In the first shot he is wearing a black suit which shows he could be high class. Bond is holding a gun and carrying a jetpack suggesting that the film will be violent. His face expression seems to looking in another direction in a quite serious look. This implies he is suspicious or ready for action. The fire also suggests a bit of violence. The brown background is quite dull however is an effective way to make James bond appear more conspicuous hence capture the audiences attention. The guns, jet suits and fire are appealing to a male audience. In the next shot we see the same man in the first shot; he is wearing a orange swim suit. This connotes he is a very sporty masculine man. Bond seems to be holding back another diver out of the way, we cannot see the divers face, but we can see him possibly aiming to get the metal object off Bonds hand, maybe this object is the key device that will blow up the world thus he could be the villain. Perhaps Bond is trying to get the device away from the villain giving the audience the impression he is the heroic character. We see a different background as opposed to the first shot. It is shot in a different place which implies the film will also be set in many countries/places. We can see water and speedboats in addition other drivers seem to be falling into the water, this whole background scene connote that it is an action packed film.

How to obtain your dream job These tips and tools will help you

How to obtain your dream job These tips and tools will help you Your dream job might just be around the corner, how exciting is that? The fact that you’re reading this article probably means that it’s closer than you think. However, securing a job is renowned for being one of the most difficult things to do in this day and age, and that’s just securing any old job! To help you land your dream job, here is a list of tips and tools that can help you nail the company’s recruitment process to get you the job you deserve to be in.Be ready for anythingIf you’re proactively job searching right now, it’s important that you make sure that you’re ready to apply at any time. According to LinkedIn statistics, you’re 13% more likely to secure a job if you apply within the first three days. This means you need to be ready to go at a moment’s notice.Stay motivatedBefore going any further, it’s important to note that you’ll need to stay positive throughout the entire job application pro cess. You might not get the first pick for the job you wanted, but that doesn’t mean that you won’t find your dream job. There’s plenty of companies and businesses out there with similar jobs; it’s all about finding the right one for you.Richard J. Davis, a motivational writer for Paper Fellows, explains, â€Å"It can be very disheartening when you don’t get a job that you applied for, but you think it could have been the one. However, you don’t need to get yourself down about it. Instead, pick yourself, write a list of reasons why you think you didn’t get the position this time and don’t do it again!†Ensure your CV reads wellWhile on the subject of reading through your CV to ensure that all the little details are accurate, make sure that you’re also on the lookout of your sentence structure. This means checking your grammar to ensure that your sentences flow nicely and your potential recruiter can absorb your inf ormation easily.If a recruiter is finding it too hard to read your CV, the chances are that they’ll simply dismiss it. To refresh your knowledge of grammar, head over to State of Writing for the most up to date guides and resources.Ensuring your CV is accurateImagine you were the recruiter in charge of recruiting for your dream job. Imagine you were reading through every application and CV and you get to yours. If it was full of spelling mistakes, typos and errors. Would you put you into the next recruitment stage?The chances are that you probably wouldn’t unless you were bad at your job. According to statistics, about 1 in 3 CVs have typos so it if yours was perfect, you’re very likely to stand out from the crowd.It’s vital that you proofread your both your CV and your cover to ensure that every detail is perfect. This will give you the best chance of securing your place in the interview stage. For editing and guidelines on proofreading your work, get a CV writing help.Networking is essentialIf you don’t have LinkedIn and you’re on the lookout for a professional job, you need to sign up, now, LinkedIn is the largest professional network in the world and no matter what company you want to work for, you can bet your bottom dollar that some of the people you need to know are on there.Once you’ve found the company online, start to follow the people that are in similar roles to you. This will help you to identify several key points, including the company culture, the type of company you want to work for and what type of people the company employs.About the author:Brenda Berg is a professional with over 15 years of experience in business management, marketing and entrepreneurship. Consultant and tutor for college students and entrepreneurs. She believes that constant learning is the only way to success. You can visit her personal blog at Letsgoandlearn.com

Medical Biochemistry Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Medical Biochemistry - Essay Example Substances levels can give a lot of information to healthcare professionals, in both clinical and research settings. Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) is present in many human tissues, enabling cells to undergo anaerobic glycolysis; its main cellular function, conversion of pyruvate into lactate, provides the energy production cycle with more substrates. Normal and abnormal levels are now standardized, and measuring its activity in serum/plasma will help elucidate the origins of damage or disease. There are different isoenzymes of LDH, which differ in their structure and certain other properties. In this practical work, which is divided into 3 weeks, we will first make a comparison of the absorption spectra of NAD+ and NADH, since the assay for LDH makes use of an important difference in these spectra. In addition, the linearity of the LDH assay, with respect to the amount of enzyme, will be assessed, and the limit of linearity determined. In week two, we will assess the LDH isoenzyme profile in rat serum and selected tissues, using agarose gel electrophoresis. Finally, the total LDH activity will be determined, using its natural substrate pyruvate. LDH activity will also be measured using the substrate analogue Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) is a coenzyme, a molecule which aids an enzyme in the acceleration of a chemical reaction, or catalysis. NAD is an agent that accepts electrons from other substrates; when NAD is reduced, the reaction forms NADH, a molecule that can be used as a donator of electrons. In aerobic glycolysis, for instance, energy is produced in the form of 2 adenosine triphosphates (ATP); in order to produce the adequate amount of energy the body cells need, the cellular mitochondria utilizes NADH. The inner membranes of this organelle are impermeable to NADH, so the latter is re-oxidized to NAD and delivers its electrons to certain shuttles that are able to transfer the substrate into the mitochondria. By these means, cytoplasmic NADH is oxidized and yields 3 ATP molecules, much more energy to the cell. Many other enzymes produce NADH in the mitochondria, all of which can be oxidized in the electron transport chain and in the process, capture energy for ATP synthesis. Once the NADH has been oxidized, the NAD can again be used by enzymes that require it, including those of the citric acid cycle (Krebs's cycle), and pyruvate dehydrogenase, among others. 2. Compare and comment on the distribution of the LDH isoenzyme bands within the tissues. Glycolysis is a biochemical cascade that coverts the main body fuel, glucose, into two pyruvates, releasing energy. In certain cells, where oxygen lacks, glycolysis occurs anaerobically: red blood cells, skeletal muscle, etc. Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) is an enzyme that is only used in anaerobic processes. By converting pyruvate to lactate, it reoxidizes NADH to NAD, so that a new reaction can be started using this coenzyme. This is an important function of LDH, because energy production would stop without NAD substrates. According to Brancaccio